521syllabus

Course Description: Instructional techniques for use with individuals or groups involved in interventive reading instruction; materials and procedures; and clinical experiences with students struggling with reading and writing.

Course Rationale: This course provides the graduate student with an opportunity to develop and implement an intervention program for a child or children based upon various assessment measures. The experience will expand current understanding of theory and pedagogy, understanding a variety of reading intervention methods, identifying reading problems, providing on-going assessment and designing an appropriate intervention program based on previous and on-going diagnostic assessment. The classroom and clinical experiences are designed to increase the graduate student's aptitude in helping all children acquire reading and writing skills. To achieve these goals, clinicians will be encouraged to be reflective of current practices and adapt and/or modify existing tools and methodologies to provide a good instructional match for each learner. Finally, this course will reflect the belief that the most important factor in effective assessment and instruction of literacy is the knowledge base and its application usage by the teacher. Therefore, clinicians will focus on the the design and implementation of reading/literacy on-going assessment as needed for elementary, middle or high school, or adult individuals who have been identified as experiencing difficulty with reading and/or literacy skills.

Since this course is based on an interactive view of ability and disability, it offers an alternative to the deficit view that continues to predominate in the books and research in reading and writing disability. Deficit models suggest that the cause of reading or writing difficulties lies entirely within the reader. Instructional programs based on a deficit model focus primarily on what Sarason and Doris (1979) call the "search for pathology" within the reader. In contrast, an interactive view suggest that reading or writing disability is a relative concept, not a static state, and that the problem often lies in the match between the learner and the condition of the learning situation. A focus on the process of evaluating the existing match and identifying an optimal match between the learner and the instructional context will be used throughout this course.

Text(s):
Lipson, M.Y. & Wixson, K.K. (2003). Assessment and instruction of reading and writing disability (3rd Ed.). New
York: Longman.

Woods, M.L., & Moe, A.J. (2007). Analytical reading inventory (8th Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Tierney, R.J., & Readence, J.E. (2005). Reading strategies and practices: A compendium (6th Ed.). Boston: MA: Allyn
& Bacon.

**Course readings on reserve in the ERC - 3rd floor Tate Page Hall. List of references will be provided.

International Reading Association's Advanced Standards for Reading Professionals (ASRP)

1.   Philosophy of reading instruction
        A. Reading is a complex, interactive, and constructive process
        B. Professionalism
        C. Moral dimensions and values
        D. Perspective about readers and reading

II.   Language development, cognition, and learning
III. Knowledge of the reading process
IV. Creating a literate environment
V.   Organizing and planning for effective instruction
        A. Knowledge of contextual factors
        B. Knowledge of individual differences
        C. Knowledge of instructional materials
VI. Knowledge of instructional strategies
        A. Teaching strategies
        B. Learning strategies
VII. Demonstrating knowledge of assessment principles and techniques
VIII. Communicating information about reading
IX.   Planning and enhancing programs
        A. Curriculum development
        B. Staff development
        C. Research

Core Objectives (Core Assessment):
A. Assessment
        1. Ability to administer, score, and interpret both norm referenced and curriculum based measures to assess reading achievement (Assessment and Reports)
        2. Interest and Motivation
                 a. ability to use interest inventories to assess and plan developmentally appropriate student learning in reading
                 b. understanding of effect of motivation on assessment (Assessment and Reports)
        3. Hearing and Visual Acuity
                 a. accurate use of Vision Screening Instruments (Assessment and Reports)
        4. Adaptive Behaviors
                 a. Knowledge of assessment for students' independent functioning and social responsibility (Exams and Reports)
        5. Receptive Language
                a.   ability to assess expressive and receptive language in reading and writing activities (Assessment and Reports)
        6. Emergent Literacy
                 a. ability to administer, score, and interpret both norm referenced and curriculum based measure to assess emergent literacy (Assessment and Reports)
        7. Attention Deficit Disorders
                 a. knowledge of assessment for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders (Assessment and Reports)
        8. Phonological Awareness
             a. ability to assess various levels of phonemic awareness (Assessment and Reports)

B. Planning
        1. Individual Reading Programs (IRP)
                 a. knowledge of assessment tools for developing Individual Reading Plans (Reports, Exams)
        2. Short-term Objectives
                 a. ability to define short-term objectives based on individual assessment (Assessment and Reports)

C. Implementation
1. Parent Conferences
a. ability to conduct parent conferences as a follow-up to assessment (Observation, checklists, conference plan)

D. Evaluation
        1. Progress in deficit areas
                 a. understanding of evaluation as an on-going process, not a one-time activity
                 b. ability to use interviews, observational and informal assessment procedures to plan and monitor developmentally appropriate student learning in literacy (Assessment and Reports)
        2. Instructional Programs
                 a. ability to evaluate instructional programs as needed for diagnostic decision making (Assessment and Reports)
        3. Materials, Media, and Equipment
                 a. understanding of characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses of various assessment instruments (Assessment and Reports)
        4. Applications to Real-life Situations
                 a. ability to apply principles of test construction and evaluation to development, selection, and use of instruments for assessment purposes
                 b. ability to cooperate with appropriate allied professionals in assessing and planning for students with severe reading deficiencies
                 c. ability to follow appropriate procedures for referring severely disabled students to agencies and professionals for in-depth assessment as appropriate (Assessment and Reports)

E. Language-Related Topics
        1. Linguistics and Linguistic Variations
                 a. understanding that language is a symbolic system representing concepts and feelings
                 b. understanding of the relationship of graphophonemic, morphemic, syntactic, and semantic systems of language to the reading process
                 c. respect of linguistic/dialectal variations in culture (Assessment and Reports)
        2. Cognitive Bases for Learning
                 a. understanding the role of prior knowledge/experience in learning new information
                 b. understanding the modes of thought (e.g., analytical thinking, critical thinking, and divergent thinking) operative in the   reading process (Assessment and Reports)

F. Human Behaviors
        1. Cognition
                 a. understanding the role of prior knowledge/experience in learning new information
                 b. understanding the role of metacognition in reading and learning
                 c. understanding the modes of thought (e.g., analytical thinking, critical thinking, and divergent thinking) operative in the reading process (Assessment and Reports)
        2. Individualized Testing
                 a. selection and administration of appropriate tools for individualized considerations (Assessment and Reports)
        3. Multiple Causes of Reading/Learning Difficulties
                 a. ability to identify patterns of behavior which might indicate physical, social, emotional, or intellectual impediments of progress toward reading maturity (Assessment and Reports)
        4. Attention Deficit Disorders
                 a. ability to identify patterns of behavior which might indicate physical, social, emotional, or intellectual impediments of progress towards reading maturity (Assessment and Reports)
        5. Intent/Motivation
                 a. ability to use interest inventories to assess and plan developmentally appropriate student learning in reading
                 b. understanding of effect of motivation on assessment (Assessment and Reports)

G. Curriculum
1. Diagnostic Teaching
a. use of sample lessons to determine ability to utilize various reading strategies (e.g., story mapping, QAR's, context clues) (Assessment and Reports)

ETS	ASRP	Core Objectives	Assessment
II, VI, VII	II, III, VII	Assessment: 1. Reading ability a) Apply evaluation as an on-going process	Lesson Plans, tutoring sessions, observation, conferencing
VI, VII	VII, VIII	b) Administer, score, and interpret various assessments of reading evaluation tools and techniques	observation, conferencing, reports
II, VII,	I, III, IV, V	c) Identify patterns of behavior which may impede progress toward reading maturity	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observation, conference, reports
II, III, IV	I, IV, V, VI	2. Interest/Motivation a) Design opportuntities to encourage appreciation of all forms of genre language	Lesson plans, tutoring sessions
II, III, V	I, V, VI	b) Provide activities to encourage appreciation of a wide variety of genre	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations
II, III, V	I, IV, V, VI	c) Direct instruction and activities to develop lifelong reading habits	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations
II, III	I, III, V, VI	d) Develop content area reading strategies to encourage competence and independence for lifelong learning	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations
II, III, V, VI, VIII	I, II, III, IV, V, VI	3. Incorporate visual and/or hearning impairment needs with regular instruction	lesson plans, tutoring session, observations
II, III, V, VI, VII	I, III, V, VI	4. Incorporate independent and/or social needs in instruction	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations
II, III, V	I, II, III, IV, V, VI	5. Incorporate activities for developmental receptive expressive language experiences	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations
II, III, V	V, VI	6. Incorporate literacy experiences through whole language activities	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations
II, III, IV, V, VI, VIII	II, III, VI	7. Recognize disorders and implementation of corrective techniques	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations
II, III, V	I, III, V, VI	8. Incorporate phonological experiences in oral language	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations
I, II, III, VI, VII	I, II, III, V,VII, IX	Planning 1. Develop plans incorporating findings from measures of assessment	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
III	II, III, V, IX	2. Set appropriate short-term goals	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
III	II, III, V, IX	3. Identify appropriate long-range goals	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
III, VI, VII	II, III, V, VII, IX	4. Modify long-term and short-term goals based on on-going classroom reading activities	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V, VI, VIII	II, III, V, VI, IX	5. Incorporate a variety of approaches as needed by each unique individual for appropriate progress	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, VII	I, II, III, VII, VIII	Implementation 1. Synthesize assessment data and information from various sources	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VII	2. Apply fundamental correctional techniques in planning and delivery of individual instruction	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V, VI, VII	II, III, V, VII	3. Identify, evaluate and incorporate instructional techniques dictated by individual evaluation outcomes	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
VI, VII, VIII	II, III, VII, VIII	Evaluation 1. Identify, report, and make recommendations regarding individual achievement during practicum instructional period	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, VI, VII, VIII	II, III, VII, VIII	2. Incorporate into a report developmental skills at onset and termination of instructional period	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, VII, VIII	II, III, VII, VIII	3. Make recommendations regarding continued instruction for each individual	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, VII, VIII	II, III, VII, VIII	4. Incorporate recommendations for materials, media, and equipment as appropriate for each individual	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
VIII	II, III, VII, VIII	5. Interpret recommendations wherever deemed necessary	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III	I, II	Language Related Topics 1. Linguistics and linguistic variations a) Understand that language is a symbolic process system	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III	I, II, III	b) Understand relationship of graphemic/phonemic/morphemic	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
IV, V	I, IV, V	c) Respect lingusitic/dialectical variations in cultures	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	2. Incorporate prior knowledge experiences into daily lessons through advance organizers, semantic maps, etc.	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III	II, III	3. Metacognition a) Understand linguistic/cognitive bases of reading	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III	II, III	b) Understand the role of prior knowledge and experience in learning	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	4. Provide appropriate experiences for language development	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	5. Comprehension, reference, study skills a) Provide direct instruction and modeling of comprehension strategies	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	b) Apply comprehension strategies	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	c) Use teacher direct questions to enhance understanding	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V,VI	d) Develop student abilities to use self-guided questioning	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III	II, III	7. Word Identification a) Understand the relationship between word recognition and comprehension	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	b) Flexible application of word recognition strategies	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	c) Use a variety of approaches for teaching word recognition strategies	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	8. Vocabulary Development a) Teach strategies for learning word meanings	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III	II, III, V, VI	b) Create lessons to develop and extend vocabulary	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V, VI, VII	II, III, V, VI, IX	Human Behavior 1. Select and apply appropriate techniques based on individual needs	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	III, V, VI, IX	2. Cognition a) Incorporate prior knowledge and experiences	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V, VI, VII	II, III, V, VI, IX	b) Identify and demonstrate appropriate skills sequences	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V, VI, VII	II, III,V, VI	3. Provide appropriate developmental language experiences	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, VI, VII	VII	4. Incorporate standardized or other procedures as needed while using on-going diagnostic practices	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V, VI, VII	I, II, III, V, VI, IX	5. Identify and incorporate into instuction considerations relating to physical, social, and/or other impediments	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII	6. Use a variety of motivational techniques to encourage active participation in all developmental tasks	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V, VI, VII	II, III, VII, IX	Curriculum and Effective School Practices 1. Diagnostic Teaching a) Base all decisions and implementation on formal and informal diagnostic findings	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, VI, VII	I, II, III	b) Understand individual difference in language development, aptitude, experience, and skill development	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	c) Use differentiated instruction	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	VI	2. Demonstrate a knowledge and familiarity with a variety of approaches and techniques through lesson planning and delivery	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	3. Reading in the content area a) Integrate comprehension and study skills into content area reading	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V	II, III, V, VI	b) Develop student ability to adjust reading rate to reflect reading purposes	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
IX	II, III, V, VI	c) Develop location and reference skills	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, IX	II, III, V, IX	Research 1. Actively apply as needed new and/or traditional techniques	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
II, III, V, IX	V, VI, IX	2. Incorporate assigned and independent reading/findings into active instruction	lesson plans, tutoring sessions, observations, conferences,
.	.	.	.
.	.	.	.

KERA Elements/Context Addresses
Goals and Valued Outcomes
Curriculum Outcomes
Goals and Learner Outcomes
Performance Tasks
Primary Program (Six Attributes)
Expanded use of Technology

TOPICS
    Interactive Decision Making and Designing Instruction
    The Assessment-Instruction Process
    Long Term Planning
    Getting Started Using High-Utility Strategies
    Adapting Instruction
    Evaluating Instruction and Student Learning
    Cognition
    Language Development and Acquisition
    Focusing on Word Recognition and Spelling
    Focusing on Fluency
    Focusing on the Reading and Writing Connection
    Focusing on Vocabulary Instruction and Techniques
    Focusing on Comprehension, Composing and Studying
    Professional Roles and Responsibilities
    Developing the Case Summary Report
    Focusing on Issues of Diversity in the Instructional Setting

Assessment will include written assignments, performance events, and inquiry opportunities and tasks as well as the ability to implement appropriate literacy assessment and analyze data to provide a diagnosis for the implementation of appropriate literacy intervention and instruction. The student must achieve minimum competency, otherwise the course must be repeated.
Final grade LTCY 521 will be based on a 670 point scale:

Professionalism, Attendance, Participation, Collegiality (15 points)
Regular attendance and participation in class are mandatory! This also includes punctuality, participation, collegiality, effort, etc. If you miss a class you are responsible for the work missed. Two unexcused tardies (arriving late or leaving early) in class amount to one unexcused absence from class. A formal doctor’s excuse must be presented to the instructor for excused absences from class. Students can earn up to 15 points for participation in class activities linked to specific course readings and content. These points cannot be earned outside of class or made up in the event that the student is absent from class (even if the absence is excused). Students must be prepared for class by completing course readings and assignments in order to meaningfully engage in class activities and earn designated points.

If the graduate student or their clinic student must be absent from a session for any reason, that session must be made up at a time that is convenient for both the graduate student and the clinic student. When making up a session, it is wise to do it as soon as possible rather than attempting to make it up at the end of the semester. As you may notice, by the end of the semester, it is certain that you will be busy with a number of assignments. Report all rescheduled clinical sessions to the instructor verbally and in writing. You must complete all the clinical sessions with your assigned student(s) to successfully complete the course.

Required Readings
It is expected that you will read and reflect on all required readings prior to each specified class listing on the course calendar. (See attached tentative course calendar for listings and dates.)

Assignments
It is expected that ALL assignments will be submitted on their due dates. Late assignments will be penalized 20% of their
possible point value if submitted within two consecutive days of their due date. Further penalties will be assessed for
assignments turned in beyond that point. During the semester a date will be announced in class stating the last day in which late
work can be submitted for a grade in the course. This policy is instituted primarily to prevent students from becoming
overloaded at the end of the semester.

It is expected that you will read and reflect on required course readings prior to each specific class session. Selected course
readings will help you develop the knowledge and theoretical base needed for teaching diverse learners strategies for reading in
the content areas. NOTE: All assignments will be graded for content and mechanics. All Clinic Reports and course assignments must be typed and meet the criteria given. Work that does not meet the criteria will not be accepted.

Keep a copy of all assignments. If an assignment is lost, the burden of proof that you completed the assignment
rests with you. You must upload the critical performance (Final Intervention Report) to the Electronic Portfolio System to receive a final grade in the course.

Portfolio for Instructional Intervention
Required Performance Events, Tasks, and Evaluations:
Clinicians will maintain a notebook or expandable folder for the following items in their portfolio:
    1. Initial Intervention Plan (30 points)
    2. Daily Agenda/Lesson Plans/On-going Assessment (approximately 9 sessions @20 points per lesson; 180 points total)
    3. Reflective Log/Journal (9 entries@ 20 points per session; 180 points total)
    4. Progress Reports (1 report@ 25 points)
    5. Instructional Intervention Observations (2 @ 45 points each; 90 points total)
    6. Final Intervention Report (165 points)

1. Initial Intervention Plan - (30 points)
Clinicians will provide an overview of the diagnostic summary and target specific objectives for reading/literacy instructional intervention during the upcoming clinic session. See the Initial Intervention Report - Criteria for Evaluation information in the appendix. Additional information will be provided during class.

2. Daily Agenda/Lesson Plans/On-going Assessment - (20 points each; 180 points total)
Clinicians will develop a weekly agenda and lesson plan for each clinic session. See requirements and format in the course appendix for Lesson Plans. * Daily Agenda/Lesson Plans/On-going Assessment is due at the beginning of each tutoring session.

3. Reflective Log/Journal - (20 points each; 180 points total)
To facilitate graduate students ability to increasingly become reflective educators, decision makers, and to construct meaning for an understanding of the interrelationships of listening, speaking, reading, writing, thinking and observing from a variety of messages, students will keep reflective weekly journal entries during the weeks of the intervention sessions. They may also include any anecdotal information or summary of activities that the clinician deems necessary for reflective evaluations. Students are expected to respond to written questions or comments from the instructor within previous journal entries or from observation evaluations. Each entry must address all five sections as developed in the Reflective Weekly Log/Journal summary found in the appendix. * Reflective Log/Journal is due at the beginning of each tutoring session.

The journal will contain nine (9)reflective entries that are kept in a cumulative notebook. Each time the journal is reviewed by the professor the ENTIRE (cumulative) notebook is to be submitted. Failure to follow this requirement will result in a significant loss of points. It is expected that future intervention will demonstrate that the professional reflection has a positive impact upon the present and future instructional intervention practices and journal writings.

Student clinicians are required to maintain professionalism and confidentiality in dealing with the instructional intervention process and/or any reporting procedures. Do not discuss the particulars of the intervention with public school personnel or anyone who is not directly affiliated with the Western Kentucky University Literacy Intervention Clinic. If there are any questions regarding the appropriate means for conducting these services, please consult the professor.

4. Progress Reports - (25 points)
Student clinicians will develop a progress report during the intervention sessions to communicate the nature of student intervention, results of on-going assessment of student learning, and literacy development of the student with the guardians or parents. The progress report will be typed and submitted to the professor by the due date as listed on the course calendar and revised (if necessary) prior to clinician communication with the guardian or parent of the student. For specific information see the Progress Report - Criteria for Evaluation summary in the appendix.

5.   Instructional Intervention Observations - (90 points total)
Two video-taped observations of the intervention portion of the session of the clinician with the student is required. One is to be completed and submitted early in the course, and the other must be submitted near the end of the clinical sessions. Additional video-taped observations may be requested if the professor deems this to be necessary or helpful for the instructional intervention sessions. The intervention observation evaluation criteria will be provided by the professor and discussed during class. Graduate student clinicians are expected to compose a written reflective summary highlighting:
            * the clinicians instructional strengths observed during the intervention session
            * identify the clinicians instructional challenges and areas of needed growth
            * to evaluate student engagement and learning during the intervention session
            * to identify personal/professional goals and objectives of the clinician for strengthening instructional effectiveness

6. Final Intervention Report - (165 points total)
The student clinicians will meet with the guardians/parents of the student(s) worked with during the clinical intervention session during the semester. The student clinician will meet to discuss the Final Summary Case Report with the guardian/parent(s) of each child.

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Plagiarism Policy:
To represent ideas or interpretations taken from another source as one's own is plagiarism. Plagiarism is a serious offense. The
academic work of students must be their own. Students must give the author(s) credit for any source material used. To lift
content directly from a source without giving credit is a flagrant act. To present a borrowed passage after having changed a
few words, even if the source is cited, is also plagiarism. Student work may be checked using plagiarism detection software. For more information see: http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/wts/plagiarism.html

Disability Accommodations Statement:
Student Disability Services - In compliance with university policy, students with disabilities who require accommodations (academic adjustments and/or auxiliary aids or services) for this course must contact the Office for Student Disability Services in DUC A-200 of the Student Success Center in Downing University Center. Please DO NOT request accommodations directly from the professor or instructor without a letter of accommodation from the Office for Student Disability Services.

Allington, R.L., & Walmsley, S.A. (1995). No quick fix. New York: Teacher’s College Press.

Atwell, N. (1987). In the middle: Writing, reading, and learning with adolescents. New Jersey: Boynton/Cook.

Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2004). Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction. (3rd Ed.). Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall Publishers.

Chen, L., & Mora-Flores, E., (2006). Balanced Literacy for English Language Learners, K-2, Heinemann Publishers.

Delpit, L. (1994). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. NY: New Press.

Gay, G. (1994). At the essence of learning: Multicultural education. NY: Macmillan.

Irvine, J.J., & Armento, B.J. (2001). Culturally Responsive Teaching: Lesson Planning for Elementary and Middle Grades. McGraw-Hill Publishers.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. NY: Yale University Press.

Powell, R. (1999). Literacy as a moral imperative: Facing the challenges of a pluralistic society. Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield.

Roe, B.D., Stoodt, B.D., & Burns, P.C. (1998). Secondary school literacy instruction: The content areas. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Santa, C.M., & Alvermann, D.E. (1991). Science learning: Processes and applications. Delaware: International Reading Association.

Tompkins, G.E., & Blanchfield, C. (2004). Teaching Vocabulary: 50 Creative Strategies, Grades K-12. Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall Publishers.

Vacca, R.T., & Vacca, J.A.L. (1998). Content area reading: Literacy and learning across the curriculum. New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.

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